Biological Sciences BS

Major: Biological Sciences
Degree Awarded: Bachelor of Science (BS)
Calendar Type: Quarter
Minimum Required Credits: 183.5
Co-op Options: Three Co-op (Five years); One Co-op (Four years); No Co-op (Four years)
Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP) code: 26.0101
Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) code: 19-1029

About the Program

The biological sciences major resides in the Department of Biology. Students earn a bachelor's degree in the biological sciences and are prepared for technical careers in research or commercial laboratories, or for professional schools or graduate study.

The biological sciences encompass many areas of study. Biologists study the structure and functions of living organisms from the individual cell to the full organism, and collectively to the community level. Discoveries in the biological sciences influence many aspects of our daily lives and have become the foundation of many new developments in biotechnology and medicine. In the past two decades, advances in molecular biology, cell biology and genetics have been rapid, opening many new, exciting career opportunities in biotechnology, genetic engineering and the development of new diagnostics and therapeutics. Biologists can pursue a variety of options including careers in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine or other health-related areas; in research or commercial laboratories at pharmaceutical companies, medical research laboratories, biotechnology companies or in government agencies; and in teaching. In fact, more than 100 different occupations have been listed for biologists. Graduates in the biological sciences are in demand and enjoy a high placement rate with competitive salaries.

The curricular choices are designed to provide a sound basis for careers in the private sector, government and research laboratories, and for advanced study in graduate and professional programs in medicine, other health related areas, or in teaching.

The course requirements identifies required support courses in chemistry, physics, mathematics, humanities, and social sciences. With proper selection of electives, students can meet teacher certification requirements or complete a minor in another field. Students are encouraged to consult frequently with their academic advisor for curriculum planning.

In addition to the core requirements, students select one of six concentrations in a field of interest:

  • Cell/Molecular Biology/Genetics/Biochemistry
  • Organismal Biology/Physiology
  • Ecology/Evolution/Genomics
  • Pathobiology
  • General Biology
  • Cell and Gene Therapy

Program Options

Co-op employment is an option for biological science students. Through Drexel Co-op, biological sciences majors gain on-the-job experience — exploring their career options, strengthening their résumés and building a professional network in the process. This experience is crucial for biology majors interested in pursuing advanced degrees and careers in academia. It also gives graduates a competitive edge for careers in industry.The major offers three distinct plans:

Five-year option with co-op experience
This option allows for the greatest amount of employment experience, with three distinct six-month periods of employment included with studies. After the start of the sophomore year, students study or work through all terms, including summer.

Four-year option with co-op experience
The degree includes just one six-month period of employment. After the start of sophomore year, students study or work through all terms, including summer.

Four-year option without co-op experience
The degree can be completed in four years without co-op/internship employment. Students are not required to pursue studies during any of the summer terms.

For additional information about this program, please visit the Department of Biology web page.

Degree Requirements 

The Biological Sciences curriculum is designed to provide students with both depth and flexibility within the field of biology. In addition to the core requirements, students select one of five concentrations in a field of interest.

  • Cell/Molecular Biology/Genetics/Biochemistry
  • Organismal Biology/Physiology
  • Ecology/Evolution/Genomics
  • Pathobiology
  • General Biology
  • Cell and Gene Therapy

Concentration requirements and elective options are outlined below. Within each concentration, students are able to further specialize in a focus area by selecting electives in their area of interest.

Requirements
Humanities and Social Sciences
CIVC 101Introduction to Civic Engagement1.0
COM 230Techniques of Speaking3.0
COM 310 [WI] Technical Communication3.0
or COM 320 Science Writing
COOP 101Career Management and Professional Development *1.0
ENGL 101Composition and Rhetoric I: Inquiry and Exploratory Research3.0
or ENGL 111 English Composition I
ENGL 102Composition and Rhetoric II: Advanced Research and Evidence-Based Writing3.0
or ENGL 112 English Composition II
ENGL 103Composition and Rhetoric III: Themes and Genres3.0
or ENGL 113 English Composition III
PHIL 251Ethics3.0
or PHIL 321 Biomedical Ethics
UNIV S101The Drexel Experience1.0
UNIV S201Looking Forward: Academics and Careers1.0
Humanities and Social Science Electives **9.0
Science, Technology, Health and Human Affairs Elective ***3.0
Mathematics and Statistics
Select one of the following sequences:12.0
Intro to Analysis
Introduction to Analysis I
and Introduction to Analysis II
and Mathematics for the Life Sciences
Calculus
Calculus I
and Calculus II
and Calculus III
MATH 410Scientific Data Analysis I3.0
MATH 411Scientific Data Analysis II3.0
Physical Sciences
BIO 311Biochemistry3.0-4.0
or CHEM 243 Organic Chemistry III
CHEM 101General Chemistry I3.5
CHEM 102General Chemistry II4.5
CHEM 103General Chemistry III4.5
CHEM 241Organic Chemistry I4.0
CHEM 242Organic Chemistry II4.0
PHYS 152Introductory Physics I4.0
PHYS 153Introductory Physics II4.0
PHYS 154Introductory Physics III4.0
Core Biology Courses
BIO 131Cells and Biomolecules4.0
BIO 134Cells and Biomolecules Lab1.0-2.0
or BIO 142 SEA-PHAGES I
BIO 132Genetics and Evolution4.0
BIO 135Genetics and Evolution Lab1.0-2.0
or BIO 143 SEA-PHAGES II
BIO 133Physiology and Ecology4.0
BIO 136Anatomy and Ecology Lab1.0-2.0
or BIO 144 SEA-PHAGES III
BIO 207Applications in Biology I1.0
BIO 208Applications in Biology II1.0
BIO 209Cell, Molecular & Developmental Biology I4.0
BIO 211Cell, Molecular & Developmental Biology II4.0
BIO 219 [WI] Techniques in Molecular Biology3.0
BIO 224Form, Function & Evolution of Vertebrates4.0
BIO 225Vertebrate Biology and Evolution Laboratory2.0
BIO 471Seminar in Biological Sciences2.0
BIO 472Seminar in Biological Sciences2.0
BIO 473 [WI] Seminar in Biological Sciences2.0
ENVS 212Evolution4.0
Concentration Courses28.0-30.0
Free electives24.0
Total Credits183.5-189.5
*

Students not participating in co-op will take one additional credit of Free Elective instead of COOP 101.

Co-op cycles may vary. Students are assigned a co-op cycle (fall/winter, spring/summer, summer-only) based on their co-op program (4-year, 5-year) and major. 

COOP 101 registration is determined by the co-op cycle assigned and may be scheduled in a different term. Select students may be eligible to take COOP 001 in place of COOP 101.

 
**

Any course in ANTH, AFAS, ARBC, CHIN, CJS, COM, FREN, GER, GREC, HBRW, HIST, HUM, ITAL, JAPN, JWST, KOR, LING, PHIL, PSCI, PSY, SOC, SPAN, and WGST at the 100-499 level, except COM 310 [WI] .

***

Courses options include  BIO 212, ENGL 300 [WI] , ENGL 302, ENGL 370, ENVS 260, HIST 285, HIST 290, HSAD 210, HSAD 328, HSAD 353, HSCI 125, HSCI 315PBHL 301, PBHL 320, PBHL 333, PHIL 341, PHIL 351, PHIL 361, PSCI 371, SCTS 101, SOC 222, and SOC 235.

Concentrations

Students select one of six concentrations and fulfill the requirements as outlined below.

1. The Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Concentration

This concentration provides exposure to several vital disciplines within Biology, and will prepare students for a diversity of careers in research, medicine, and industry. Students interested in tailoring their studies more specifically may follow the suggested "focus areas" when selecting their two CMGB Concentration electives.

Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Concentration Requirements
BIO 244Genetics I3.0
or BIO 444 Human Genetics
BIO 314Pharmacology3.0
or BIO 404 Structure and Function of Biomolecules
or BIO 416 Biochemistry of Major Diseases
BIO 318Biology of Cancer3.0
or BIO 430 Cell Biology of Disease
BIO 410Advanced Molecular Biology3.0
Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Concentration Electives (See Lists Below)
Two Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives (see list below)6.0
Organismal/Physiology Elective (see list below)3.0
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Elective (see list below)3.0
Concentration Laboratory Courses
Two Laboratory Electives (see list below)4.0
Total Credits28.0
 

Students interested in pursuing a focus area in Neurobiology, Pharmaceutics, Cell Biology, Biochemistry, Molecular Biology or Genetics should contact the academic advisor in the Biology Department for specific focus recommendations.

Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives
BIO 244Genetics I3.0
BIO 285Forensic Biology3.0
BIO 311Biochemistry4.0
BIO 314Pharmacology3.0
BIO 318Biology of Cancer3.0
BIO 346Stem Cell Research3.0
BIO 348Neuroscience: From Cells to Circuits3.0
BIO 404Structure and Function of Biomolecules4.0
BIO 414Behavioral Genetics3.0
BIO 415Proteins3.0
BIO 416Biochemistry of Major Diseases3.0
BIO 421Biomembranes3.0
BIO 430Cell Biology of Disease3.0
BIO 433Advanced Cell Biology3.0
BIO 444Human Genetics3.0
BIO 447Advanced Genetics and Molecular Biology3.0
BIO 453Protein Dysfunction in Disease3.0
BIO 462Biology of Neuron Function3.0
BIO 463Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration3.0
BIO 465Neurobiology of Disease3.0
ENVS 326Molecular Ecology3.0
Organismal/Physiology Electives
BIO 201Human Physiology I4.0
BIO 221Microbiology3.0
BIO 256Vertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
BIO 284Biology of Stress3.0
BIO 286Forensic Toxicology3.0
BIO 323Parasitology3.0
BIO 349Behavioral Neuroscience3.0
BIO 372Histology4.0
BIO 373Developmental Biology3.0
BIO 386Gross Anatomy I2.0
BIO 412Biology of Aging3.0
BIO 420Virology3.0
BIO 426Immunology3.0
BIO 461Neurobiology of Autism Disorders3.0
ENVS 254Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
ENVS 393Entomology3.0
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Electives
BIO 228Evolutionary Biology & Human Health3.0
BIO 331Bioinformatics I3.0
BIO 413Genomics3.0
BIO 436Population Genetics4.0
ENVS 230General Ecology3.0
ENVS 247Native Plants and Sustainability3.0
ENVS 315Plant Animal Interactions3.0
ENVS 323Tropical Field Studies3.0
ENVS 328Conservation Biology3.0
ENVS 333Wetland Ecology3.0
ENVS 343Equatorial Guinea: Field Methods3.0
ENVS 352Ornithology3.0
ENVS 354Ichthyology3.0
ENVS 355Biogeography3.0
ENVS 360Evolutionary Developmental Biology3.0
ENVS 364Animal Behavior3.0
ENVS 382Field Botany of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 383Ecology of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 391Freshwater and Marine Algae3.0
ENVS 470Advanced Topics in Evolution3.0
Laboratory Electives
BIO 202Human Physiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 213Drosophila Neural Research3.0
BIO 215Techniques in Cell Biology3.0
BIO 222Microbiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 232Discovering Antibiotics3.0
BIO 242SEA-GENES I2.0
BIO 257Vertebrate Morphology & Physiology Lab2.0
BIO 306Biochemistry Laboratory2.0
BIO 329Dictyostelium Research3.0
BIO 374Developmental Biology Lab2.0
BIO 387Gross Anatomy I Laboratory2.0
BIO 389Gross Anatomy II Lab2.0
BIO 497Research0.5-12.0
ENVS 255Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology Lab2.0
ENVS 344Equatorial Guinea: Field Research6.0
ENVS 353Field Ornithology Lab2.0
ENVS 394Entomology Laboratory2.0

2. The Organismal Biology/Physiology Concentration

This concentration combines courses in organismal biology and physiology with an opportunity to focus on human physiology. The concentration is designed to appeal to students interested in health and medicine, but also accommodates students seeking a wider breadth of knowledge in organismal diversity. Students can focus their electives in human physiology or can choose courses that study non-human organisms.

Organismal Biology/Physiology Concentration Requirements
BIO 201Human Physiology I4.0
or ENVS 254 Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology
BIO 203Human Physiology II4.0
or BIO 256 Vertebrate Morphology and Physiology
BIO 373Developmental Biology3.0
Select one of the following:
BIO 412Biology of Aging3.0
or BIO 284 Biology of Stress
or BIO 466 Endocrinology
or BIO 468 Pathophysiology
Organismal Biology/Physiology Concentration Concentration Electives (See List Below)
Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Elective3.0
Two Organismal/Physiology Electives6.0
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Elective3.0
Concentration Laboratory Courses
Two Laboratory Electives4.0
Total Credits30.0
 

Students interesting in pursuing a focus area in Human Physiology or Organismal Biology should contact the academic advisor in the Biology Department for specific focus recommendations.

Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives
BIO 244Genetics I3.0
BIO 285Forensic Biology3.0
BIO 311Biochemistry4.0
BIO 314Pharmacology3.0
BIO 318Biology of Cancer3.0
BIO 346Stem Cell Research3.0
BIO 348Neuroscience: From Cells to Circuits3.0
BIO 404Structure and Function of Biomolecules4.0
BIO 410Advanced Molecular Biology3.0
BIO 414Behavioral Genetics3.0
BIO 416Biochemistry of Major Diseases3.0
BIO 430Cell Biology of Disease3.0
BIO 433Advanced Cell Biology3.0
BIO 444Human Genetics3.0
BIO 453Protein Dysfunction in Disease3.0
BIO 462Biology of Neuron Function3.0
BIO 463Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration3.0
ENVS 326Molecular Ecology3.0
Organismal/Physiology Electives
BIO 201Human Physiology I4.0
BIO 203Human Physiology II4.0
BIO 221Microbiology3.0
BIO 256Vertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
BIO 264Ethnobotany3.0
BIO 284Biology of Stress3.0
BIO 286Forensic Toxicology3.0
BIO 320Microbial Pathogenesis3.0
BIO 323Parasitology3.0
BIO 349Behavioral Neuroscience3.0
BIO 372Histology4.0
BIO 386Gross Anatomy I2.0
BIO 388Gross Anatomy II2.0
BIO 412Biology of Aging3.0
BIO 420Virology3.0
BIO 426Immunology3.0
BIO 435Immunobiology of Disease3.0
BIO 461Neurobiology of Autism Disorders3.0
BIO 466Endocrinology4.0
BIO 468Pathophysiology4.0
ENVS 254Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
ENVS 393Entomology3.0
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Electives
BIO 228Evolutionary Biology & Human Health3.0
BIO 331Bioinformatics I3.0
BIO 413Genomics3.0
BIO 436Population Genetics4.0
ENVS 230General Ecology3.0
ENVS 247Native Plants and Sustainability3.0
ENVS 315Plant Animal Interactions3.0
ENVS 323Tropical Field Studies3.0
ENVS 328Conservation Biology3.0
ENVS 333Wetland Ecology3.0
ENVS 343Equatorial Guinea: Field Methods3.0
ENVS 352Ornithology3.0
ENVS 354Ichthyology3.0
ENVS 355Biogeography3.0
ENVS 360Evolutionary Developmental Biology3.0
ENVS 364Animal Behavior3.0
ENVS 382Field Botany of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 383Ecology of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 388Marine Field Methods4.0
ENVS 391Freshwater and Marine Algae3.0
ENVS 438Biodiversity3.0
ENVS 470Advanced Topics in Evolution3.0
Laboratory Electives
BIO 202Human Physiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 213Drosophila Neural Research3.0
BIO 215Techniques in Cell Biology3.0
BIO 222Microbiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 232Discovering Antibiotics3.0
BIO 242SEA-GENES I2.0
BIO 257Vertebrate Morphology & Physiology Lab2.0
BIO 306Biochemistry Laboratory2.0
BIO 329Dictyostelium Research3.0
BIO 333Bioinformatics Laboratory2.0
BIO 374Developmental Biology Lab2.0
BIO 387Gross Anatomy I Laboratory2.0
BIO 389Gross Anatomy II Lab2.0
ENVS 255Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology Lab2.0
ENVS 344Equatorial Guinea: Field Research6.0
ENVS 353Field Ornithology Lab2.0
ENVS 394Entomology Laboratory2.0

3. The Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Concentration

This concentration focuses on ecological and evolutionary aspects of biology for biology majors who also have specific interests in ecology, evolution or genomics. This concentration is designed to maintain a breadth of knowledge in biology, but also allows students to tailor their course work more specifically to reflect their specific area of interest.

Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Concentration Requirements
BIO 228Evolutionary Biology & Human Health3.0
or BIO 331 Bioinformatics I
BIO 436Population Genetics3.0-4.0
or ENVS 230 General Ecology
ENVS 326Molecular Ecology3.0
Select one of the following:3.0-5.0
Microbiology
Vertebrate Morphology and Physiology
Parasitology
Genomics
Virology
Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology
Evolutionary Developmental Biology
Field Botany of the New Jersey Pine Barrens
Freshwater and Marine Algae
Entomology
Biodiversity
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Concentration Electives
Select one Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Elective (see list below)3.0
Select one Organismal/Physiology Elective (see list below)3.0
Select two Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Electives (see list below)6.0
Concentration Laboratory Courses
Select two Laboratory Electives (see list below)4.0
Total Credits28.0-31.0
 

Students interested in pursuing a focus area in Ecology, Evolutionary Biology or Genomics should contact the academic advisor in the Biology Department for specific focus recommendations.

Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives
BIO 244Genetics I3.0
BIO 285Forensic Biology3.0
BIO 311Biochemistry4.0
BIO 314Pharmacology3.0
BIO 318Biology of Cancer3.0
BIO 346Stem Cell Research3.0
BIO 348Neuroscience: From Cells to Circuits3.0
BIO 404Structure and Function of Biomolecules4.0
BIO 410Advanced Molecular Biology3.0
BIO 414Behavioral Genetics3.0
BIO 415Proteins3.0
BIO 416Biochemistry of Major Diseases3.0
BIO 421Biomembranes3.0
BIO 430Cell Biology of Disease3.0
BIO 433Advanced Cell Biology3.0
BIO 444Human Genetics3.0
BIO 453Protein Dysfunction in Disease3.0
BIO 462Biology of Neuron Function3.0
BIO 463Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration3.0
Organismal/Physiology Electives
BIO 201Human Physiology I4.0
BIO 221Microbiology3.0
BIO 256Vertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
BIO 264Ethnobotany3.0
BIO 284Biology of Stress3.0
BIO 286Forensic Toxicology3.0
BIO 323Parasitology3.0
BIO 349Behavioral Neuroscience3.0
BIO 372Histology4.0
BIO 373Developmental Biology3.0
BIO 386Gross Anatomy I2.0
BIO 388Gross Anatomy II2.0
BIO 412Biology of Aging3.0
BIO 420Virology3.0
BIO 426Immunology3.0
BIO 461Neurobiology of Autism Disorders3.0
ENVS 254Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
ENVS 393Entomology3.0
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Electives
BIO 228Evolutionary Biology & Human Health3.0
BIO 331Bioinformatics I3.0
BIO 332Bioinformatics II3.0
BIO 413Genomics3.0
BIO 436Population Genetics4.0
ENVS 230General Ecology3.0
ENVS 247Native Plants and Sustainability3.0
ENVS 284Physiological and Population Ecology3.0
ENVS 286Community and Ecosystem Ecology3.0
ENVS 315Plant Animal Interactions3.0
ENVS 322Tropical Ecology3.0
ENVS 328Conservation Biology3.0
ENVS 330Aquatic Ecology3.0
ENVS 333Wetland Ecology3.0
ENVS 343Equatorial Guinea: Field Methods3.0
ENVS 352Ornithology3.0
ENVS 354Ichthyology3.0
ENVS 355Biogeography3.0
ENVS 360Evolutionary Developmental Biology3.0
ENVS 364Animal Behavior3.0
ENVS 382Field Botany of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 383Ecology of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 390Marine Ecology3.0
ENVS 391Freshwater and Marine Algae3.0
ENVS 410Physiological Ecology3.0
ENVS 412Biophysical Ecology3.0
ENVS 438Biodiversity3.0
ENVS 470Advanced Topics in Evolution3.0
Laboratory Electives
BIO 202Human Physiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 213Drosophila Neural Research3.0
BIO 215Techniques in Cell Biology3.0
BIO 222Microbiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 232Discovering Antibiotics3.0
BIO 242SEA-GENES I2.0
BIO 257Vertebrate Morphology & Physiology Lab2.0
BIO 306Biochemistry Laboratory2.0
BIO 329Dictyostelium Research3.0
BIO 333Bioinformatics Laboratory2.0
BIO 374Developmental Biology Lab2.0
BIO 387Gross Anatomy I Laboratory2.0
BIO 389Gross Anatomy II Lab2.0
BIO 497Research (by permission of the department)0.5-12.0
ENVS 255Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology Lab2.0
ENVS 327Molecular Ecology Laboratory2.0
ENVS 344Equatorial Guinea: Field Research6.0
ENVS 353Field Ornithology Lab2.0
ENVS 382Field Botany of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 383Ecology of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 388Marine Field Methods4.0
ENVS 394Entomology Laboratory2.0

 4. The Pathobiology Concentration

The Pathobiology concentration focuses on pathogenesis, and provides a unique option for students that differs from the more traditional disciplines in cell/molecular/genetics/biochemistry. This concentration is designed to appeal to students with an interest in pursuing careers in areas of public and allied health.

Pathobiology Concentration Requirements
BIO 221Microbiology3.0
BIO 320Microbial Pathogenesis3.0
BIO 323Parasitology3.0
or BIO 420 Virology
or BIO 435 Immunobiology of Disease
BIO 426Immunology3.0
Select one Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Elective (see list below)3.0
Select two Organismal/Physiology Electives (see list below)6.0
Select one Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Elective (see list below)3.0
Concentration Laboratory Courses
Two Laboratory electives (see list below)4.0
Total Credits28.0
Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives
BIO 244Genetics I3.0
BIO 285Forensic Biology3.0
BIO 311Biochemistry4.0
BIO 314Pharmacology3.0
BIO 318Biology of Cancer3.0
BIO 346Stem Cell Research3.0
BIO 348Neuroscience: From Cells to Circuits3.0
BIO 404Structure and Function of Biomolecules4.0
BIO 410Advanced Molecular Biology3.0
BIO 414Behavioral Genetics3.0
BIO 415Proteins3.0
BIO 416Biochemistry of Major Diseases3.0
BIO 421Biomembranes3.0
BIO 430Cell Biology of Disease3.0
BIO 433Advanced Cell Biology3.0
BIO 444Human Genetics3.0
BIO 453Protein Dysfunction in Disease3.0
BIO 462Biology of Neuron Function3.0
BIO 463Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration3.0
ENVS 326Molecular Ecology3.0
Organismal/Physiology Electives
BIO 201Human Physiology I4.0
BIO 203Human Physiology II4.0
BIO 221Microbiology3.0
BIO 256Vertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
BIO 284Biology of Stress3.0
BIO 286Forensic Toxicology3.0
BIO 323Parasitology3.0
BIO 349Behavioral Neuroscience3.0
BIO 372Histology4.0
BIO 373Developmental Biology3.0
BIO 386Gross Anatomy I2.0
BIO 388Gross Anatomy II2.0
BIO 412Biology of Aging3.0
BIO 420Virology3.0
BIO 435Immunobiology of Disease3.0
BIO 461Neurobiology of Autism Disorders3.0
BIO 466Endocrinology4.0
BIO 468Pathophysiology4.0
ENVS 254Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Electives
BIO 228Evolutionary Biology & Human Health3.0
BIO 331Bioinformatics I3.0
BIO 413Genomics3.0
BIO 436Population Genetics4.0
ENVS 230General Ecology3.0
ENVS 247Native Plants and Sustainability3.0
ENVS 315Plant Animal Interactions3.0
ENVS 323Tropical Field Studies3.0
ENVS 328Conservation Biology3.0
ENVS 333Wetland Ecology3.0
ENVS 343Equatorial Guinea: Field Methods3.0
ENVS 352Ornithology3.0
ENVS 354Ichthyology3.0
ENVS 355Biogeography3.0
ENVS 360Evolutionary Developmental Biology3.0
ENVS 364Animal Behavior3.0
ENVS 382Field Botany of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 383Ecology of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 391Freshwater and Marine Algae3.0
ENVS 438Biodiversity3.0
ENVS 470Advanced Topics in Evolution3.0
Laboratory Electives
BIO 202Human Physiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 213Drosophila Neural Research3.0
BIO 215Techniques in Cell Biology3.0
BIO 222Microbiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 232Discovering Antibiotics3.0
BIO 242SEA-GENES I2.0
BIO 257Vertebrate Morphology & Physiology Lab2.0
BIO 306Biochemistry Laboratory2.0
BIO 329Dictyostelium Research3.0
BIO 333Bioinformatics Laboratory2.0
BIO 374Developmental Biology Lab2.0
BIO 387Gross Anatomy I Laboratory2.0
BIO 389Gross Anatomy II Lab2.0
BIO 497Research (by permission of the department)0.5-12.0
ENVS 255Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology Lab2.0
ENVS 344Equatorial Guinea: Field Research6.0
ENVS 353Field Ornithology Lab2.0

5. The General Biology Concentration

This concentration will allow maximum flexibility for students who want to develop their own unique plan of study. The concentration is designed for students who may not have one specific area of interest, but who are looking to be well-rounded in the biological sciences. Students pursuing careers in education, where a wider breadth of knowledge in biology is desirable, may choose to select this concentration.

General Biology Concentration Requirements
General Biology Concentration Electives24.0
2 or 3 Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives (see list below)
2 or 3 Organismal/Physiology Electives (see list below)
2 or 3 Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Electives (see list below)
Concentration Laboratory Courses
Two Laboratory electives (see list below)4.0
Total Credits28.0
Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives
BIO 244Genetics I3.0
BIO 285Forensic Biology3.0
BIO 311Biochemistry4.0
BIO 314Pharmacology3.0
BIO 318Biology of Cancer3.0
BIO 346Stem Cell Research3.0
BIO 348Neuroscience: From Cells to Circuits3.0
BIO 404Structure and Function of Biomolecules4.0
BIO 413Genomics3.0
BIO 415Proteins3.0
BIO 421Biomembranes3.0
BIO 430Cell Biology of Disease3.0
BIO 433Advanced Cell Biology3.0
BIO 444Human Genetics3.0
BIO 447Advanced Genetics and Molecular Biology3.0
BIO 453Protein Dysfunction in Disease3.0
BIO 462Biology of Neuron Function3.0
BIO 465Neurobiology of Disease3.0
ENVS 326Molecular Ecology3.0
Organismal/Physiology Electives
BIO 201Human Physiology I4.0
BIO 203Human Physiology II4.0
BIO 221Microbiology3.0
BIO 256Vertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
BIO 264Ethnobotany3.0
BIO 284Biology of Stress3.0
BIO 286Forensic Toxicology3.0
BIO 320Microbial Pathogenesis3.0
BIO 323Parasitology3.0
BIO 349Behavioral Neuroscience3.0
BIO 372Histology4.0
BIO 373Developmental Biology3.0
BIO 386Gross Anatomy I2.0
BIO 388Gross Anatomy II2.0
BIO 412Biology of Aging3.0
BIO 420Virology3.0
BIO 426Immunology3.0
BIO 435Immunobiology of Disease3.0
BIO 461Neurobiology of Autism Disorders3.0
BIO 466Endocrinology4.0
BIO 468Pathophysiology4.0
ENVS 254Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology3.0
ENVS 393Entomology3.0
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Electives
BIO 228Evolutionary Biology & Human Health3.0
BIO 331Bioinformatics I3.0
BIO 332Bioinformatics II3.0
BIO 413Genomics3.0
ENVS 230General Ecology3.0
ENVS 247Native Plants and Sustainability3.0
ENVS 284Physiological and Population Ecology3.0
ENVS 286Community and Ecosystem Ecology3.0
ENVS 315Plant Animal Interactions3.0
ENVS 322Tropical Ecology3.0
ENVS 323Tropical Field Studies3.0
ENVS 328Conservation Biology3.0
ENVS 330Aquatic Ecology3.0
ENVS 333Wetland Ecology3.0
ENVS 343Equatorial Guinea: Field Methods3.0
ENVS 352Ornithology3.0
ENVS 354Ichthyology3.0
ENVS 355Biogeography3.0
ENVS 360Evolutionary Developmental Biology3.0
ENVS 364Animal Behavior3.0
ENVS 382Field Botany of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 383Ecology of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 388Marine Field Methods4.0
ENVS 390Marine Ecology3.0
ENVS 391Freshwater and Marine Algae3.0
ENVS 410Physiological Ecology3.0
ENVS 412Biophysical Ecology3.0
ENVS 438Biodiversity3.0
ENVS 470Advanced Topics in Evolution3.0
Laboratory Electives
BIO 202Human Physiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 213Drosophila Neural Research3.0
BIO 215Techniques in Cell Biology3.0
BIO 222Microbiology Laboratory2.0
BIO 232Discovering Antibiotics3.0
BIO 242SEA-GENES I2.0
BIO 257Vertebrate Morphology & Physiology Lab2.0
BIO 306Biochemistry Laboratory2.0
BIO 329Dictyostelium Research3.0
BIO 333Bioinformatics Laboratory2.0
BIO 374Developmental Biology Lab2.0
BIO 387Gross Anatomy I Laboratory2.0
BIO 389Gross Anatomy II Lab2.0
BIO 497Research (by permission of the department)0.5-12.0
ENVS 255Invertebrate Morphology and Physiology Lab2.0
ENVS 327Molecular Ecology Laboratory2.0
ENVS 344Equatorial Guinea: Field Research6.0
ENVS 353Field Ornithology Lab2.0
ENVS 382Field Botany of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 383Ecology of the New Jersey Pine Barrens4.0
ENVS 388Marine Field Methods4.0
ENVS 394Entomology Laboratory2.0

Note about laboratory credits: ENVS 382 and ENVS 388 have both a lecture and laboratory component.

6. The Cell and Gene Therapy Concentration

The Cell and Gene Therapy concentration provides a strong biological foundation for those aspiring toward professions in this unique subdiscipline. These therapies have the potential to transform medicine by alleviating the cause of disease using RNA, DNA and cells to reprogram the body’s defenses to fight disease. The cell and gene therapy workforce is expected to grow 35-94% between 2022 and 2032. This concentration will benefit students pursuing careers in medicine bioinformatics, regulatory compliance, public health, research and industry.

Cell and Gene Therapy Concentration Requirements
BIO 244Genetics I3.0
BIO 346Stem Cell Research3.0
BIO 413Genomics3.0
or BIO 426 Immunology
BIO 444Human Genetics3.0
or BIO 420 Virology
Select two Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives (see list below)6.0
Select one Organismal/Physiology Elective (see list below)3.0-4.0
Select one Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Elective (see list below)3.0-4.0
Concentration Laboratory Courses
Two Laboratory Electives (see list below)4.0-6.0
Total Credits28.0-32.0
Cell/Molecular/Genetics/Biochemistry (CMGB) Electives
BIO 314Pharmacology3.0
BIO 318Biology of Cancer3.0
BIO 416Biochemistry of Major Diseases3.0
BIO 430Cell Biology of Disease3.0
BIO 444Human Genetics3.0
BIO 453Protein Dysfunction in Disease3.0
Organismal/Physiology Electives
BIO 201Human Physiology I4.0
BIO 373Developmental Biology3.0
BIO 420Virology3.0
BIO 426Immunology3.0
Ecology/Evolution/Genomics Electives
BIO 228Evolutionary Biology & Human Health3.0
BIO 331Bioinformatics I3.0
BIO 413Genomics3.0
BIO 436Population Genetics4.0
Laboratory Electives
BIO 213Drosophila Neural Research3.0
BIO 215Techniques in Cell Biology3.0
BIO 232Discovering Antibiotics3.0
BIO 242SEA-GENES I2.0
BIO 306Biochemistry Laboratory2.0
BIO 329Dictyostelium Research3.0
BIO 497Research (by permission of Dept)0.5-12.0

Writing-Intensive Course Requirements

In order to graduate, all students must pass three writing-intensive courses after their freshman year. Two writing-intensive courses must be in a student's major. The third can be in any discipline. Students are advised to take one writing-intensive class each year, beginning with the sophomore year, and to avoid “clustering” these courses near the end of their matriculation. Transfer students need to meet with an academic advisor to review the number of writing-intensive courses required to graduate.

A "WI" next to a course in this catalog may indicate that this course can fulfill a writing-intensive requirement. For the most up-to-date list of writing-intensive courses being offered, students should check the Writing Intensive Course List at the University Writing Program. Students scheduling their courses can also conduct a search for courses with the attribute "WI" to bring up a list of all writing-intensive courses available that term.

Sample Plans of Study 

4 year, no co-op

First Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
BIO 1314.0BIO 1324.0BIO 1334.0VACATION
BIO 134 or 1421.0-2.0BIO 135 or 1431.0-2.0BIO 136 or 1441.0-2.0 
CHEM 1013.5CHEM 1024.5CHEM 1034.5 
ENGL 101 or 1113.0CIVC 1011.0ENGL 103 or 1133.0 
MATH 121 or 1014.0ENGL 102 or 1123.0MATH 239 or 1234.0 
UNIV S1011.0MATH 122 or 1024.0  
 16.5-17.5 17.5-18.5 16.5-17.5 0
Second Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
BIO 2071.0BIO 2081.0BIO 2244.0VACATION
BIO 2094.0BIO 2114.0BIO 2252.0 
BIO 2193.0CHEM 2424.0BIO 311 or CHEM 2433.0-4.0 
CHEM 2414.0PHYS 1534.0PHIL 2513.0 
PHYS 1524.0UNIV S2011.0PHYS 1544.0 
 Biology Laboratory Requirement course*2.0  
 16 16 16-17 0
Third Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
ENVS 2124.0COM 3103.0COM 2303.0VACATION
MATH 4103.0MATH 4113.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0 
BIO/ENVS elective3.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0Biology Laboratory Requirement course*2.0 
Humanities/Social Science elective3.0Humanities/Social Science elective3.0Free elective3.0 
Science, Technology, Health & Human Affairs elective3.0 Humanities/Social Science elective3.0 
 16 12 14 0
Fourth Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCredits 
BIO 4712.0BIO 4722.0BIO 4732.0 
BIO/ENVS electives6.0BIO/ENVS elective6.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0 
Free electives**7.0Free electives6.0Free electives9.0 
 15 14 14 
Total Credits 183.5-187.5
*

 See degree requirements.

**

Students not participating in co-op will take one additional credit of Free Elective instead of COOP 101.

4 year, 1 co-op

First Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
BIO 1314.0BIO 1324.0BIO 1334.0VACATION
BIO 134 or 1421.0-2.0BIO 135 or 1431.0-2.0BIO 136 or 1441.0-2.0 
CHEM 1013.5CHEM 1024.5CHEM 1034.5 
ENGL 101 or 1113.0CIVC 1011.0COOP 101*1.0 
MATH 121 or 1014.0ENGL 102 or 1123.0ENGL 103 or 1133.0 
UNIV S1011.0MATH 122 or 1024.0MATH 239 or 1234.0 
 16.5-17.5 17.5-18.5 17.5-18.5 0
Second Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
BIO 2071.0BIO 2081.0BIO 311 or CHEM 2433.0-4.0BIO 2244.0
BIO 2094.0BIO 2114.0ENVS 2124.0BIO 2252.0
BIO 2193.0CHEM 2424.0PHIL 2513.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0
CHEM 2414.0PHYS 1534.0PHYS 1544.0Humanities/Social Science elective3.0
PHYS 1524.0UNIV S2011.0 Science, Technology, Health & Human Affairs elective3.0
 Biology Laboratory requirement**2.0  
 16 16 14-15 15
Third Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
COOP EXPERIENCECOOP EXPERIENCECOM 2303.0COM 3103.0
  MATH 4103.0MATH 4113.0
  BIO/ENVS elective3.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0
  Free electives6.0Biology Laboratory Requirement course**2.0
   Free elective3.0
 0 0 15 14
Fourth Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCredits 
BIO 4712.0BIO 4722.0BIO 4732.0 
BIO/ENVS electives6.0BIO/ENVS electives6.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0 
Free electives6.0Free elective3.0Free electives6.0 
 Humanities/Social Science elective3.0Humanities/Social Science elective3.0 
 14 14 14 
Total Credits 183.5-187.5
*

Co-op cycles may vary. Students are assigned a co-op cycle (fall/winter, spring/summer, summer-only) based on their co-op program (4-year, 5-year) and major. 

COOP 101 registration is determined by the co-op cycle assigned and may be scheduled in a different term. Select students may be eligible to take COOP 001 in place of COOP 101.

**

 See degree requirements.

5 year, 3 co-op

First Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
BIO 1314.0BIO 1324.0BIO 1334.0VACATION
BIO 134 or 1421.0-2.0BIO 135 or 1431.0-2.0BIO 136 or 1441.0-2.0 
CHEM 1013.5CHEM 1024.5CHEM 1034.5 
ENGL 101 or 1113.0CIVC 1011.0COOP 101*1.0 
MATH 121 or 1014.0ENGL 102 or 1123.0ENGL 103 or 1133.0 
UNIV S1011.0MATH 122 or 1024.0MATH 239 or 1234.0 
 16.5-17.5 17.5-18.5 17.5-18.5 0
Second Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
COOP EXPERIENCECOOP EXPERIENCEBIO 2071.0BIO 2081.0
  BIO 2094.0BIO 2114.0
  BIO 2193.0CHEM 2424.0
  CHEM 2414.0PHYS 1534.0
  PHYS 1524.0UNIV S2011.0
   Biology Laboratory Requirement course**2.0
 0 0 16 16
Third Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
COOP EXPERIENCECOOP EXPERIENCEBIO 311 or CHEM 2433.0-4.0BIO 2244.0
  ENVS 2124.0BIO 2252.0
  PHIL 2513.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0
  PHYS 1544.0Humanities/Social Science elective3.0
   Science, Technology, Health & Human Affairs elective3.0
 0 0 14-15 15
Fourth Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCreditsSummerCredits
COOP EXPERIENCECOOP EXPERIENCECOM 2303.0COM 3103.0
  MATH 4103.0MATH 4113.0
  BIO/ENVS elective3.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0
  Free electives6.0Biology Laboratory Requirement course**2.0
   Free elective3.0
 0 0 15 14
Fifth Year
FallCreditsWinterCreditsSpringCredits 
BIO 4712.0BIO 4722.0BIO 4732.0 
BIO/ENVS electives6.0BIO/ENVS electives6.0BIO/ENVS elective3.0 
Free electives6.0Free elective3.0Free electives6.0 
 Humanities/Social Science elective3.0Humanities/Social Science elective3.0 
 14 14 14 
Total Credits 183.5-187.5
*

Co-op cycles may vary. Students are assigned a co-op cycle (fall/winter, spring/summer, summer-only) based on their co-op program (4-year, 5-year) and major. 

COOP 101 registration is determined by the co-op cycle assigned and may be scheduled in a different term. Select students may be eligible to take COOP 001 in place of COOP 101.

**

 See degree requirements.


Co-op/Career Opportunities

Opportunities

Students earn a bachelor’s degree in the biological sciences and are prepared for technical careers in research or commercial laboratories or for professional schools.

Graduates typically work for pharmaceutical companies, university and medical research laboratories, biotechnology companies, or in government laboratories. Many graduates also choose to pursue an advanced degree in the medical, dental and veterinary disciplines; or Masters or PhD degrees in Biology-related fields and Public Health.

Co-op Opportunities

Past co-op employers of biosciences majors have included:

  • GlaxoSmithKline
  • Fox Chase Cancer Center
  • Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
  • Johnson and Johnson
  • Merck
  • Wistar Institute
  • Moss Rehab
  • ViroPharma, Inc.
  • Janssen Biotech
  • Integral Molecular

Visit the Drexel Steinbright Career Development Center page for more detailed information on co-op and post-graduate opportunities.

Dual/Accelerated Degree

Combined Bachelor's/Master's Degree

Qualified students can take graduate courses in their junior and senior years for graduate credit. They can also complete a combined Biological Sciences BS/Biological Sciences MS degree in five years. Further questions about the BS/MS degree program should be directed to the departmental graduate advisor:

Kate Pelusi
Graduate Program Manager
Department of Biology
215.895.6374
kp475@drexel.edu

Facilities

The Department of Biology resides in the Papadakis Integrated Sciences Building (PISB). This state of the art facility has well-equipped teaching laboratories with networked computers and advanced digital image analysis capability. Both teaching and research laboratories contain a range of modern equipment including basic and cutting-edge light microscopes, confocal microscopy facilities, a Cell Imaging Center, basic and analytical ultacentrifuges, spectrophotometers, scintillation and luminescence counters, densitometers and cell culture facilities.

Visit the Research in Biology webpage for more information.

Program Level Outcomes

Upon completion of the program, graduates will be prepared to:

  • Attain a good functional knowledge of general biology content
  • Understand and be able to perform techniques relevant to modern biology
  • Critically read and analyze their own work and the biology literature with respect to global impact and experimental design
  • Communicate effectively in science
  • Understand how to conduct science in an ethical manner
  • Be prepared effectively for a career or future schooling in biology or related fields

Biological Sciences Faculty

Ali Afify, PhD (University of Konstanz). Assistant Professor. Insect olfaction; Sensory Neurobiology; Mosquito oviposition; Malaria.
Laura Duwel, PhD (University of Cincinnati) Assistant Department Head, Department of Biology. Teaching Professor. Immunology and microbiology.
Felice Elefant, PhD (Temple University). Professor. Understanding the roles of two classes of chromatin regulatory proteins termed histone acetyltransferases(HATs)and histone de-methylases.
Denise Garcia, PhD (UCLA). Associate Professor. Neuroscience, the role of astrocytes in the central nervous system.
Tali Gidalevitz, PhD (University of Chicago). Associate Professor. Genetic and molecular pathways regulating protein folding homeostasis, and their role in protein conformation diseases, aging, and development.
Meshagae Hunte-Brown, PhD (Drexel University). Teaching Professor. Stable isotopes in aquatic food webs, ecosystem ecology, STEM education.
Kari Lenhart, PhD (Princeton University). Assistant Professor. Coordination of stem cell behavior and regulation of stem cell cytokinesis in the young and aged niche.
Robert Loudon, PhD (Thomas Jefferson University). Associate Teaching Professor. Rho GTPases, regulation of actin cytoskeleton, Regulation of G protein-coupled receptors by receptor kinases and arrestins.
Alison Moyer, PhD (North Carolina State University). Assistant Teaching Professor. Testing soft tissue preservation in the fossil record, Phage biology as part of the undergraduate research course SEA-PHAGES, STEM Education.
Michael O'Connor, MD, PhD (MD, Johns Hopkins University; PhD, Colorado State). Professor. Biophysical and physiological ecology, thermoregulation of vertebrates, ecological modeling.
Sean O'Donnell, PhD (University of Wisconsin-Madison). Professor. Climate ecology, focusing on geographic variation and species differences in thermal physiology; Behavior and ecology of army ant/bird interactions; Neurobiology, focusing on brain plasticity and brain evolution in social insects.
Ryan Petrie, PhD (McGill University) Director, Biology Graduate Program . Associate Professor. Cell Biology. Mechanisms of cell movement through three-dimensional extracellular matrix.
Megan V Phifer-Rixey, PhD (University of Pennsylvania). Assistant Professor. Evolution; Genetics; Adaptation; Integrative Biology; Urban; Climate.
Jerome Ricard, PhD (University Joseph Fourier, Grenoble, France). Assistant Teaching Professor. Inflammation and cell death after spinal cord injury. Regulation of cell death by Eph receptors.
Jacob Russell, PhD (University of Arizona). Professor. Microbiomes and metagenomics; ecology and evolution of symbiosis.
Nianli Sang, MB, PhD (M.B., Fudan University Shanghai Medical College; Ph.D., Thomas Jefferson University) Co-Director of the Cell Imaging Center. Associate Professor. Molecular and cellular biology of cancer; posttranslational modification, folding and quality control of proteins and their implication in cell physiology and human diseases.
Usha Sanka, PhD (Weill-Cornell University Graduate School of Medical Sciences). Associate Teaching Professor. Human Physiology, Climate change and human physiology, human physiology education, air quality and human health, climate change education.
Aleister Saunders, PhD (University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill) Executive Vice Provost for Research and Innovation, Director of the RNAi Resource Center. Professor. Identification and characterization of genes and proteins involved in Alzheimer's disease.
Manuel Seman-Senderos, PhD (Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine). Assistant Teaching Professor. Cell Biology; genetics; history of science; synthetic biology; drug discovery.
Kevin P.W. Smith, PhD (Drexel University). Associate Teaching Professor. Linking behavioral ecology and organismal diversity, neonate behavior in herpetological models, STEM education.
Jennifer Stanford, PhD (Harvard University). Associate Professor. Evaluating and improving approaches to teach STEM content in higher education environments to promote student learning, engagement in STEM courses, and STEM student retention.
Monica M. Togna, PhD (New Jersey Institute of Technology). Teaching Professor. Examination of the structure and function of living organisms from the cellular to the organismal level in order to better understand common physiological processes.

Emeritus Faculty

Joseph Bentz, PhD (State University of New York [SUNY] at Buffalo). Professor Emeritus. Biophysics, biochemistry and biopharmaceutics, focused on the molecular basis of biological membrane transport and fusion.
Cecilie Goodrich, PhD (Harvard University). Professor Emeritus. Neuroscience and systems physiology, postnatal maturation of physiology and behavior in relation to brain immunocytochemistry.
Donna Murasko, PhD (Penn State Hershey Medical Center) Dean Emeritus. Professor. The effects of aging on the adaptive immune response to influenza virus and retrovirus latency and reactivation.